A Fabulous Woman
In December 1935, at a meeting of the All-African Convention, Dr. A.B. Xuma, later to be the President-General of the ANC, characterised Mrs. Charlotte Maxeke as "the mother of African freedom in this
Country." And Professor Jabavu of Fort Hare is said to have described her on another occasion as "one of the great figures of Bantu progressive life and one of the best known figures in public life in South Africa." And this year, the ANC Women’s Section named a kindergarten/nursery in Morogoro, Tanzania: "The Charlotte Maxeke Child Care Centre."
Who was Charlotte Maxeke? What had she done to merit such praises and honour? What has made her name retain its magic for decades?
Unfortunately, so little is known about her. Even authoritative studies on our movement only mention her name by way of passing reference.
On the occasion of August 9, the South African Women’s Day, Sechaba feels it is our duty and obligation to attempt to write her story — by no means a full biography — so that we are in a better position to remember our heroes and heroines, people who by their deeds and thoughts have left a legacy and heritage we younger generations have inherited.
Young Student
Charlotte Makgomo Manye was born at Ramokgopa in the Pietersburg district on April 7, 1874. As a young girl she had a lovely deep voice; sang in concerts in many places including Kimberley. She later joined a group of singers organised by a Mr. Bam which later toured England "where she sang before Royalties" — Queen Victoria. Two years later the group travelled to Canada and the United States where she was offered an opportunity for university training.
She entered the Wilberforce University in Cleveland, Ohio - a university which was controlled by the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church; a church run by Afro-Americans. At the university — it is said — she made friends with some future leaders of the black community in the United States and "often lectured in America on the needs of her people at home."
That was not all. She wrote to Rev. M.M. Mokone who had founded the Ethiopian Church in Pretoria telling him about the AME Church. On Rev. Mokone’s initiative the fourth Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Church decided to merge the Ethiopian Church with the AME Church. That was in 1896. This is how the AME Church penetrated to South Africa.
While still at Wilberforce she met and married Rev. Marshall Maxeke who was also a student there. From then onwards she became known as Charlotte Maxeke.
Mrs. Maxeke Returns Home
In 1905 she graduated and earned a B.Sc. degree — perhaps the first African woman from South Africa to earn a bachelor’s degree. Together with her husband they returned home to found the Wilberforce Institute, later to be one of the leading Transvaal higher schools of learning for Africans. She began active pioneer work in the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church. She then left for Ramokgopa where she opened a college which did not succeed perhaps because of financial difficulties.
Then a call came which was to her a direct challenge for her future work. In 1912 they were invited by Chief Enock Mamba — the paramount Chief of the Thembus — to open and take charge of a college (private school) on his farm. The Maxekes went without waste of time. The school produced a good number of high school young men and women but the cost of maintaining the school was exorbitant.
But their work went beyond the walls of the classroom. Mrs. Maxeke was drawn into the life of the Thembus; she took a full place in their councils and often spoke in the court of the Chief.
Her Political Career
The Maxekes had to leave for Johannesburg owing to failure of health. There she soon became a leader in church work and social service. The AME Church elected her president of the Women’s Missionary Society in recognition of her leadership — an office she held for a decade. Her gift of eloquence in English and African languages made her a popular speaker. (It is said she once spoke on the same platform as Queen Victoria’s grand-daughter, Princess Alice). She was so interested in the welfare of her people that she addressed conferences on the social life of the Africans; she was so outspoken on social issues that she was called to give evidence before government commissions dealing with African affairs.
In 1919 she achieved political prominence as a leader of women demonstrators against proposals to extend the pass system to women. She thus decided to found, what was then called the Bantu Women’s League which T.D. Mweli-Skota calls "the African Women’s League... a branch of the African National Congress." She became the President of the ANC Women’s League "for many years." As President of this newly-formed African Womens’ League she led a delegation to the Prime Minister to discuss the question of the passes for women in the Free State. Charlotte Maxeke’s Women’s Section, which had branches almost all over the country, demonstrated widely and occasionally successfully against passes for women.
It should be remembered that the question of passes in the Free State forced women as early as 1913 to go beyond petitions and deputations by refusing to carry passes and backed their action with mass demonstrations.
In workers’ struggles she was never an onlooker; she was very much involved. In 1920 she extended her support to the early efforts of Clements Kadalie and Selby Msimang to launch a national trade union movement for Africans.
In the documents on the history of our people the name of Mrs. Maxeke appears next to the names of African and ANC giants of the time: Selby Msimang, Lehana, Makgatho, Mapikela, Ndhlovu, Fenyang, Zibi, Jabavu, Langa, Molema, Pelem, Bokleni, Kuzwayo, Majozi, Moiloa, Mopeli, Mphahlele, Takalani, Thema etc.
She was one of the contributors in the discussion in 1923 on the question of "registration of the Natives", the pass laws.
In the many meetings she attended she called for joint conferences of Africans and Whites to analyse the situation of urban African women; she also featured in discussions about the "Administration of Justice," asking for the setting up of juvenile courts to deal with cases of children. She demanded that women magistrates should be appointed for these courts because the "present method" of treating children as adults and "sending them to gaols and reformatories was utterly ruinous."
Charlotte Maxeke was not only an activist: she always sought to combine her actions with reflection; theory with practice. When T.D. Mweli-Skota wrote and published in 1931 the African Register, an African Who’s Who in South Africa, the main contributors of biographical sketches in this pioneer work were Sol Plaatje, George Champion, Josiah Gumede, Daniel Letanka and of course Charlotte Maxeke. She made use of her journalistic skills as she and her husband were also editors of local African newspapers.
One of Charlotte’s greatest contributions to the analysis of the women question in South Africa was the address she made on "Social Conditions Among Bantu Women and Girls" at a conference of "European and Bantu Christian Student Associations" at Fort Hare, held from June 27 to July 3, 1930.
In this address she discussed questions connected with the African home and family; the role of the woman in the family and she went on to enumerate the "many problems pressing in upon us" to disturb the peaceful working of the homes.
These problems, according to her, were the adverse effects of migratory system — "the stream of Native life into the towns" — and the laws and regulations which prevent the wife from living with her husband. She was very articulate in presenting the effects of racial discrimination, the problems of domestic servants, religious aspects, "work permits", the social effects of racism on the wife and children, the land questions which she called a "very acute" question: indeed according to her South Africa in terms of the land available to the Africans was "shrinking daily" and cattle diseases were ruining African wealth which is "gradually decaying."
She was dramatic and convincing in presenting her case. Let us take as an example the question of a dilemma which faces the wife of a migrant worker: she has either to look after the children or for employment. Therefore she decides on a "home industry" which takes the form of the brewing and selling of Skokiaan (a concoction):
"Thus the woman starts on a career of crime for herself and her children, a career which often takes her and her children right down the depths of immorality and misery....
"The woman, poor unfortunate victim of circumstances, goes to prison, and the children are left even more desolate than when their mother left them to earn her living by selling Skokiaan."
One of Charlotte Maxeke’s favourite topics was the question of African unity — and not just in South Africa but on a continental scale — and this was four decades before the formation of the OAU.
Knowing the need for her wide service, the town authorities in Johannesburg appointed her Native Probation Officer for African juvenile delinquents to the Magistrates’ Court and she also ran an employment agency for African women. This gave her an insight into:
She visited the four women’s prisons in the country; she could influence the prisoners; she found work for the women who had finished their sentence and cared for prisoners’ children while their mothers were in gaol. She acted as advisor and friend and on behalf of many African men and women who knew her for miles around. Not content with seeking to help the prisoners, she worked to remove the causes of crime.
Her Unforgettable Role
In 1939 she died at the age of 65. Throughout her life she showed outstanding qualities as an ANC activist, social worker, teacher, journalist, leader in the AME church — which she represented at a conference in the US in 1928 and a thinker. She had a keen sense of humour, sane judgement and kindly heart as G.A. Gollock describes her in her book Daughters of Africa.
Another aspect of her character is depicted by T.D. Mweli-Skota:
"Such a zealous leader was Mrs. Maxeke that on one occasion, for fear that she would miss the opening of a conference, of which she was president, decided to travel by a SAR coal truck from Johannesburg to Bloemfontein the night before the opening of the conference, and was there on time. She sacrificed comfort and sleep for duty."
It is true that not all her ideas — and those of her contemporaries — can be acceptable today. Even the language she uses - the language of her generation — differs from ours. The conciliatory nature of her speeches ("Let us try to make our Christianity practical") is typical of the pronouncements of the day whose characteristic message was to "make the white man understand our plight."
This is not surprising because the policy of the ANC has changed radically over the years. We have become much more mature and articulate in the expression of our goals, identification of the enemy and mapping out our strategy and tactics to achieve our goal which we define as national self-determination and liberation of the Africans and other racially and nationally oppressed black communities; thanks to the foundations laid by and pioneering work of people like Charlotte Maxeke.
Her very participation in Congress activities — and she was not alone — and in the general struggle of the African people symbolised the determination and willingness of the ANC to involve women and crystallised the belief of our movement in the equality of both sexes. Women like Charlotte Maxeke contributed tremendously to this realisation.
The activities of Mrs. Maxeke indirectly led some women — including Mrs. Albertina Sisulu — to join the ANC Youth League in the 40s and the ANC later formed the ANC Women’s League which in turn led to the formation of the Federation of South African Women.
On the occasion of August 9, we remember women like Mary Moodley, Lilian Ngoyi, Kate Molale and fighters like Dorothy Nyembe, Esther Maleke and many other daughters and granddaughters of Charlotte Maxeke. The Charlotte Maxeke Child Care Centre will definitely produce more Charlotte Maxekes.
From: Sechaba, August 1980
Charlotte Maxeke: 'The mother of African freedom'
The starting point of any account of the contribution of women leaders to the struggle in South Africa must begin with Charlotte Maxeke, the person described by Dr AB Xuma as "the mother of African freedom in this country".
At a time when membership of the fledgling ANC, then the South African Native National Congress, was only open to men, Charlotte Maxeke became the first president of the Bantu Women's League (BWL). Formed in 1918, the BWL was the forerunner of the ANC Women's League.
Maxeke was born Charlotte Makgomo Manye in the Pietersburg district in 1874. From a young age she was a talented singer and joined a group of singers that toured England. She travelled to Canada and the United States, where she was offered a place at the Wilberforce University in Cleveland, Ohio, which was run by the African Methodist Episcopal Church. While there she married fellow student Rev Marshall Maxeke.
She graduated in 1905 with a BSc degree, and returned home with her husband to found the Wilberforce Institute, which was later to be one of the leading Transvaal higher schools of learning for Africans.
Charlotte Maxeke achieved political prominence as a leader of women demonstrators against proposals to extend the pass system to women. It was at this time that she decided to found the Bantu Women's League. As President of the League, she led a delegation to the then Prime Minister to discuss the question of passes for women in the Free State. The BWL, which had branches all over the country, demonstrated widely and sometimes successfully against passes for women.
Maxeke's prominent political role clearly had a direct bearing on the profile and strength of the BWL. Writing in an article on the role of women in the first few decades of the ANC, Frene Ginwala notes that in Charlotte Maxeke, the BWL had "a leader of national standing among the African people and one who was capable of dealing directly with legislators and officials. Women no longer had need of interpreters or spokesmen, but could articulate their demands and make their own representations."
Maxeke was also involved in workers' struggles. In 1920 she extended her support to early efforts of Clements Kadalie and Selby Msimang to launch a national trade union movement for Africans. Within days of the inaugural conference of the Industrial Commercial Workers Union (ICU), the Bantu Women's League of Pietersburg drew up a list of grievances of women farm workers. Examples were cited of farmers making women do exceedingly heavy physical labour. The workers also objected to being forced to work until midnight without time off for meals.
As Native Probation Officer for juvenile delinquents in Johannesburg, she was particularly concerned with the conditions of women and children prisoners. Not merely content to help prisoners, she was committed also to fighting the causes of crime.
Maxeke died in 1939 at the age of 65. Throughout her life she showed outstanding qualities as an ANC activist, social worker, teacher, journalist, church leader and thinker. Her legacy serves as an inspiration for all South Africans in the ongoing struggle against the oppression of women in South Africa.
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